Do pre- and post-copulatory sexually selected traits covary in large herbivores?

Table 1 Phylogenetically corrected models testing the relationships between male pre- and post-copulatory sexually selected traits

Dependent variable	Independent variables	Beta ± SE	t	P	N	df	r	λ
Weapon length	Body mass	0.48 ± 0.09	5.58	< 0.001	45	42	0.65	0.69^0.36/0.21
	Testes mass	0.04 ± 0.08	0.50	0.62			0.08
Weapon length	Body mass	0.56 ± 0.06	10.01	< 0.001	54	51	0.81	1.00^< 0.001/1
	Sperm length	−0.95 ± 0.47	−2.04	0.05			−0.27
Weapon length	Body mass	0.58 ± 0.06	10.43	< 0.001	54	51	0.83	0.98^{0.01/< 0.001}
	Sperm head length	−0.04 ± 0.29	−0.12	0.90			−0.02
Weapon length	Body mass	0.56 ± 0.06	9.10	< 0.001	53	50	0.79	0.98^{< 0.001/0.26}
	Sperm midpiece length	−0.11 ± 0.31	−0.35	0.73			−0.05
Weapon length	Body mass	0.51 ± 0.06	8.37	< 0.001	47	44	0.78	0.98^{< 0.001/0.21}
	Sperm midpiece volume	0.02 ± 0.07	0.35	0.73			0.05
Weapon length	Body mass	0.57 ± 0.05	10.58	< 0.001	54	51	0.83	1.00^< 0.001/1
	Sperm tail length	−0.80 ± 0.36	−2.24	0.03			−0.30

Models are tested with Bininda-Emonds et al. [31] phylogeny across ungulates species (both Bovidae and Cervidae pooled). r represents effect size values. λ represents the index of phylogenetic covariance (see Methods section). The superscripts following the λ value indicate p-value of likelihood ratio tests against models with λ = 0 (first position) and λ = 1 (second position). All variables were log transformed.

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