Fig. 3
Effects of predation. a) Predation can prevent emergence of fast-learning cognitive styles. Under conditions without predation, trait L evolved to be high in order to exploit resource R2. With predation, L evolved to be low, because individuals could not learn to handle resource R2 anymore due to the decreased lifespans caused by predation. Besides predation pressure, the enviroments are identical (DR1 = 0.0 and DR2 = 0.0; T = 90). Boxplots are based on 10 replicate simulations with N = 1000 and G = 500. B) Predation pressure could also lead to the evolution of elevated L. Please note that we set the handling time for resource R2 very high (HR2 = 500), so that it could not be reduced within the lifetime of individuals. Thus, in this example, increased L was solely beneficial in regard to antipredation behaviour. Therefore, in this example, high L was induced by predation pressure. Boxplots are based on 10 replicates simulations with N = 1000 and G = 500