Table 1 Phylogeographical events and divergence time predictions used to construct phylogenies corresponding to, and in accordance with, alternative hypotheses for the origin and radiation of the Triculinae and related taxa

Tibet (West–east) radiation[10]

1. Lithoglyphidae diverge from Hydrobiidae

Pangaea/fossil record [44]

305-169 Ma [44]

2. Amnicolidae and proto-Pomatiopsidae diverge

Pangaea after initial breakup into northern and Gondwanaland continents/amnicolids common and diverse in North, but less so in Asia, therefore it is assumed that they crossed into Southwest China before the major Himalayan uplift) [10]

200-190 Ma [45]

3. Pomatiopsidae arise after break up of East Gondwana

Gondwana/Fossil record indicates no Triassic rafting of pomatiopsids on West Burma block and Cimmeria to Asia

<210-150 Ma [46]

4. Pomatiopsinae and Triculinae diverge

Indian Craton - after separation from Gondwana (as no Triculinae in South Africa) [10]

≤165 Ma [46, 47]

5. The tribes of the Triculinae diverge

Yunnan/Prior to closure of the Brahmaputra-Irrawaddy-Mekong corridor (because all three tribes of the Triculinae are found in lower Mekong) [10]

c.a. 18 Ma [10]

6. Lacunopsis clade diverged from Triculini

Yunnan/Fenouilia of Yunnan, like Lacunopsis, is derived from proto-Tricula bollingi[48] therefore, date lies between divergence of Triculini (18 Ma) and major regional uplift

18-7 Ma [49]

7. Lower Mekong triculine radiation in Laos

Triculine taxa become more derived as they radiate out from Dali/evolution occurs in concert with the evolution of the rivers as they cut southwards towards the sea [10]

11-5 Ma [31, 50]

Hunan (East to West) radiation[9]

1. Lithoglyphidae diverge from Hydrobiidae

Pangaea/fossil record [44]

305-169 Ma [44]

2. Amnicolidae and proto-Pomatiopsidae diverge

East Gondwana/After separation from India-Madagascar (because no confirmed reports of pomatiopsids in India, either extant or fossil)

c.a. 132 Ma [46, 47]

3. Pomatiopsinae diverge in marine habitats

Eastern Gondwana (Australia)/inundation by high sea levels, increased coastal habitats

c.a. 112 Ma [51]

4. Proto-Oncomelania arises

Tertiary island hopping along extensive island complex (Borneo-Philippines) [9]

40-20 Ma [47]

5. Radiation of terrestrial/amphibious pomatiopsines

Japan/Miocene orogeny in Japan plus local and global climate change [9]

15-5 Ma [39, 52]

6. Oncomelania enters China and diverges

On Yangtze plain/Prior to opening of Sea of Japan [53]

c.a. 15 Ma [54]

7. Triculinae diverge from proto-Oncomelania

West China/Triculinae adapt to new conditions from Pliocene major uplift of Himalaya [53]

c.a. 7 Ma [49]

8. Hunan, northern Lao & Vietnam Pachydrobiini isolate

Indosinia/Red river corridor between southern China (Hunan) and Sundaland broken [20]

c.a. 4.4 Ma [55]

9. Yunnan & Sichuan Triculinae isolate in uplifting terrane

Southwest China/Uplift of Hengduan mountains and associated ranges

c.a. 3.4 Ma [56]

10. Lacunopsis clade diverged from Triculini

Yunnan/Prior to Hengduan orogeny

c.a. 3.4 Ma [56]

11. Northern Thailand Triculini isolated from China/Sundaland taxa

Late-Pliocene block faulting causes several course changes along the proto-Mekong river [2] North Sundaland/Extended Mekong-Ping river separation and flow reversal [20]

c.a. 3.4 Ma [56, 57]

12. Lower Mekong extensive radiation of Pachydrobbiini and other Triculinae

Climatic change and range contraction/fragmentation

c.a. 2.5 Ma [58]

13. Robertsiella diverges from Mekong Pachydrobiini in Pahang river drainage, Malaysia

West Malaysia/Mekong river course changes and rising sea levels flood Sunda shelf, break river connections between Cambodia & Malaysia [59]/divergence of S. malayensis[60]

2.6-0.8 Ma [61]

14. Divergence of Erhai & Dianchi Basin taxa in Yunnan

Yunnan/Stage 3–2 of Sanjiang orogeny in Yunnan and associated tectonic events

0.9 Ma [49]

15. Neotricula aperta strains diverge

Final surge of Himalayan uplift, tilting of Khorat Basin, Mul-river flow reversal, and volcanism in southern Laos [19], drive further divergence in the lower Mekong

0.8-0.9 Ma [49]